Nicaragua

República de Nicaragua Republic of Nicaragua
Anthem: Salve a ti, Nicaragua
Capital (and largest city)		Managua 12°9′N, 86°16′W
Official languages		Spanish1
Demonym		Nicaraguan
Government		Presidential republic
-	President	Daniel Ortega (FSLN)
-	Vice President	Jaime Morales Carazo
Independence		from Spain
-	Declared	September 15, 1821
-	Recognized	July 25, 1850
-	Revolution	July 19, 1979
Area
-	Total	129,494 km² (97th) 50,193 sq mi
-	Water (%)	7.14
Population
-	July 2006 estimate	5,603,000 (107th)
-	2005 census	5,142,098
-	Density	42/km² (132th) 109/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2007 estimate
-	Total	$24,547 billion (109th)
-	Per capita	$3,200 (128th)
Gini (2001)		43.1 (medium)
HDI (2007)		▲ 0.710 (medium) (110th)
Currency		Córdoba (NIO)
Time zone		(UTC-6)
Internet TLD		.ni
Calling code		+505
1	English and indigenous languages on Caribbean coast are also spoken.

Nicaragua (IPA: /ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə/) officially the Republic of Nicaragua (Spanish: República de Nicaragua (help·info), IPA: [reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa]), is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America. It is also the least densely populated with a demographic similar in size to its smaller neighbors. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north and by Costa Rica to the south. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west of the country, while the Caribbean Sea lies to the east. Falling within the tropics, Nicaragua sits 11 degrees north of the Equator, in the Northern Hemisphere.

The country\'s name is derived from Nicarao, the name of the Nahuatl-speaking tribe which inhabited the shores of Lago de Nicaragua before the Spanish conquest of the Americas, and the Spanish word Agua, meaning water, due to the presence of the large lakes Lago de Nicaragua (Cocibolca) and Lago de Managua (Xolotlán), as well as lagoons and rivers in the region."Origen del nombre de Nicaragua:", Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Nicaragua. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. (Spanish) 

At the time of the Spanish conquest, Nicaragua was the name given to the narrow strip of land between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. Chief Nicarao ruled over the land when the first conquerors arrived. The term was eventually applied, by extension, to the Nicarao or Niquirano groups that inhabited that region.

The Nicarao tribe migrated to the area from northern regions after the fall of Teotihuacán, on the advice of their religious leaders. According to tradition, they were to travel south until they encountered a lake with two volcanoes rising out of the waters, and so they stopped when they reached Ometepe, the largest fresh-water volcanic island in the world.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Columbian history 1.2 The Spanish conquest 1.3 From colony to nation 1.4 United States involvement (1909 - 1933) 1.5 The Somoza Dynasty (1936 - 1979) 1.6 The Nicaraguan revolution 1.7 Sandinistas and the Contras 2 Politics 2.1 1990s and the post-Sandinista era 3 Departments and municipalities 4 Geography 4.1 Pacific lowlands 4.2 Central highlands 4.3 Atlantic lowlands 5 Economy 5.1 Components of the economy 6 Tourism 7 Demographics 7.1 Population 7.2 Ethnic groups 7.3 Immigration 8 Culture 8.1 Language 8.2 Religion 9 Cuisine 9.1 Main staple 10 Education 11 Sports 12 See also 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 External links

History

Main articles: History of Nicaragua and Political history of Nicaragua

Pre-Columbian history

6000 year old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near the lake in Managua, Nicaragua.

In Pre-Columbian times the Indigenous people, in what is now known as Nicaragua, were part of the Intermediate Area located between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions. This has recently been updated to include the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met.

Nicaragua was inhabited by Paleo-Indians as far back as 6000 years ago."Ancient footprints of Acahualinca", ViaNica. Retrieved on 2007-06-29.  This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone like the ones found on the island of Zapatera and petroglyphs found in Ometepe island. At the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture and language to the Mayans."Nicaragua: Precolonial Period", Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved on 2007-06-29.  They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms. Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples, mostly chibcha related groups, that had migrated from what is now Colombia. They lived a less sedentary life based on hunting and gathering."Nicaragua: VI History", Encarta. Retrieved on 2007-06-13. 

The people of eastern Nicaragua appear to have traded with and been influenced by the native peoples of the Caribbean, as round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were common in eastern Nicaragua. In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao, or Nicaragua, a rich ruler who lived in Nicaraocali, now the city of Rivas. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. These two groups had intimate contact with the Spanish conquerors, paving the way for the racial mix of native and European stock now known as mestizos. However, within three decades an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted to a few tens of thousands, as approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new diseases brought by the Spaniards, something the indigenous people of the Caribbean coast managed to escape due to the remoteness of the area.

The Spanish conquest

Colonial architecture of the city of Granada, Nicaragua

In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed south along the Central America isthmus. On his fourth voyage Columbus sailed alongside and explored the Mosquito Coast on the east of Nicaragua."Letter of Columbus on the Fourth Voyage", American Journey. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  The first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Spanish conquistador Gil González Dávila,"Nicaragua: History", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  whose Central American exploits began with his arrival in Panama in January 1520. González claimed to have converted some 30,000 indigenous peoples and discovered a possible transisthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of which were commanded by Nicarao and an estimated 3,000 led by chief Diriangén."The Spanish Conquest", Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  González later returned to Panama where governor Pedrarias Dávila attempted to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of gold. This resulted in González fleeing to Santo Domingo.

It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded. Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua\'s principal towns in 1524: Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement and León east of Lake Managua came after. Córdoba soon found it necessary to prepare defenses for the cities and go on the offensive against incursions by the other conquistadores. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedrarias Dávila, his tomb and remains were discovered some 500 years later in the Ruins of León Viejo."Nicaragua Briefs: An Historic Find", Envío, Central American University - UCA. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. 

The inevitable clash between the Spanish forces did not impede their devastation of the indigenous population. The Indian civilization was destroyed. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains.Duncan, David Ewing, Hernando de Soto - A Savage Quest in the Americas - Book II: Consolidation, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1995 By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadores came out winners, and some were executed or murdered. Pedrarias Dávila was a winner; although he had lost control of Panama, he had moved to Nicaragua and established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony. The land was parceled out to the conquistadores. The area of most interest was the western portion. Many indigenous people were soon enslaved to develop and maintain "estates" there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, few were killed in warfare, and the great majority were sent as slaves to other New World Spanish colonies, for significant profit to the new landed aristocracy. Many of the indigenous people died as a result of disease and neglect by the Spaniards who controlled everything necessary for their subsistence.

From colony to nation

Corn Island off the Atlantic Coast was originally a British protectorate until it was ceded along with the rest of the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua

In 1538, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative "parties" with León as the capital. In 1610, the Momotombo erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León. Nicaragua became a part of the Mexican Empire and then gained its independence as a part of the United Provinces of Central America in 1821 and as an independent republic in its own right in 1838. The Mosquito Coast based on the Caribbean coast was claimed by the United Kingdom and its predecessors as a protectorate from 1655 to 1850; this was delegated to Honduras in 1859 and transferred to Nicaragua in 1860, though it remained autonomous until 1894. Jose Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from 1893-1909, managed to negotiate for the annexation of this region to the rest of Nicaragua. In his honour the entire region was named Zelaya.

Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua

Much of Nicaragua\'s politics since independence has been characterized by the rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada. The rivalry often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s. Initially invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer named William Walker (later executed in Honduras) set himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election 1856. Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive him out of Nicaragua in 1857, after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued.Herring, Hubert, A History of Latin America - from the Beginnings to the Present - Chapter 28, Central America and Panama - Nicaragua, 1838-1909, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1968

In the 1800s Nicaragua experienced a wave of immigration, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium generally moved to Nicaragua to set up businesses with money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks.

United States involvement (1909 - 1933)

See also: Occupation of Nicaragua and Nicaragua Canal

Augusto César Sandino

In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua\'s potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya\'s attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year. U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933,"US violence for a century: Nicaragua: 1912-33", Socialist Worker. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  except for a nine month period beginning in 1925. From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses."Bryan–Chamorro Treaty", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  Following the evacuation of U.S. marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines."General Augusto C. Sandino: The Constitutional War", ViaNica. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. 

From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto César Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the US Marines for over five years.Vukelich, Donna. "A Disaster Foretold", The Advocacy Project. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  The revolt finally forced the United States to compromise and leave the country. When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard),"The Somoza years", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the mostly figurehead President Juan Bautista Sacasa.

After the US Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly-elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year."Biographical Notes". Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza to order the assassination of Sandino."History of U.S. Violence Across the Globe: Washington\'s War Crimes (1912-33)", 2001-12-16. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. Solo, Toni. "Nicaragua: From Sandino to Chavez", Dissident Voice, 2005-10-07. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 by the National Guard. Hundreds of men, women, and children were executed later."The Somoza Dynasty", University of Pittsburgh, pp. 1. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. 

The Somoza Dynasty (1936 - 1979)

Anastasio Somoza García and his sons Anastasio Somoza Debayle and Luis Somoza Debayle

Nicaragua has seen many interventions by the United States. It has also experienced long military dictatorships, the longest one being the rule of the Somoza family for much of the 20th century. The Somoza family came to power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the National Guard to replace the small individual armies that had long reigned in the country.Lying for Empire: How to Commit War Crimes With a Straight Face" David Model, Common Courage Press, 2005 Somoza deposed Sacasa and became president on Jan. 1, 1937 in a rigged election.

Nicaragua was the first country to ratify the UN Charter,"The United States and the Founding of the United Nations...", U.S. Department of State, October 2005. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  and declared war on Germany during World War II. No troops were sent to the war but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans, the best-known of which was the Montelimar estate which today operates as a privately-owned luxury resort and casino. "El asalto de Somoza a los alemanes", 6 Jan 2005. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. (Spanish) 

Street scene of Managua city centre prior to the 1972 earthquake

Somoza used the National Guard to force Sacasa to resign, and took control of the country in 1937, destroying any potential armed resistance."Sandino and Somoza", Grinnell College. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  Somoza was in turn assassinated by Rigoberto López Pérez, a liberal Nicaraguan poet, in 1956. After his father\'s death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country. He is remembered by some for being moderate, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president Rene Schick whom most Nicaraguans viewed "as nothing more than a puppet of the Somozas".Leonard, Thomas M. "Against all odds: U.S. policy and the 1963 Central America Summit Conference", Journal of Third World Studies, 2003, pp. 11. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  Somoza\'s brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, who succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick.

Nicaragua experienced high economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s largely as a result of industrialization,Annis, Barbara. "Nicaragua: Diversification and Growth, 1945-77", The Library of Congress, December 1993. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  and became one of Central America\'s most developed nations despite its political instability. Due to its stable and high growth economy, foreign investments grew, primarily from U.S. companies such as Citigroup, Sears, Westinghouse and Coca Cola. However, the capital city of Managua suffered a major earthquake in 1972 which destroyed nearly 90% of the city creating major losses."Headline: Nicaragua Earthquake", Vanderbilt University, 1972-12-16. Retrieved on 2007-05-24.  Some Nicaraguan historians see the 1972 earthquake that devastated Managua as the final \'nail in the coffin\' for Somoza. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on December 31 1972, but he died enroute in an airplane accident."Roberto Clemente - Bio", he National Baseball Hall of Fame. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation,"A Battle Ends, a War Begins", TIME. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  and did not allow the elite to share the profits that would result. In 1973 (the year of reconstruction) many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth, and the ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty.

The Nicaraguan revolution

Main article: FSLN

Cuban President of The Council of State Fidel Castro in Nicaragua, with former and current President Daniel Ortega (1980)

In 1961, a young student, Carlos Fonseca, turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with 2 others founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The FSLN was a tiny party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza\'s utter hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a Sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandinistas were much stronger.

After the 1972 earthquake and Somoza\'s brazen corruption, mishandling of relief, and refusal to rebuild Managua, the ranks of the Sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected Nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose."The Sandinistas and the Revolution", Grinnell College. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  These economic problems propelled the Sandinistas in their struggle against Somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class Nicaraguans to see the Sandinistas as the only hope for removing the brutal Somoza regime. On January 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper La Prensa and ardent opponent of Somoza, was assassinated."History of Nicaragua: The Beginning of the End", American Nicaraguan School. Retrieved on 2007-08-04.  This is believed to have led to the extreme general disappointment with Somoza. The planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the Somoza regime and included the dictator\'s son, “El Chiguin”, the President of Housing, Cornelio Hueck, the Attorney General, and Pedro Ramos, a close Cuban ally who commercialized blood plasma.

The Sandinistas, supported by much of the populace, elements of the Catholic Church, and regional and international governments, took power in July of 1979. Somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in Paraguay, where he was assassinated in September 1980, allegedly by members of the Argentinian Revolutionary Workers Party."Timeline: Nicaragua", Stanford University. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  The Sandinistas inherited a country in ruins with a debt of U.S.$1.6 billion dollars, an estimated 50,000 war dead, 600,000 homeless, and a devastated economic infrastructure.Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino by Thomas W. Walker. Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado. 1981 To begin the task of establishing a new government, they created a Council (or junta) of National Reconstruction, made up of five members – Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega and Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce "the Twelve"), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). The preponderance of power, however, remained with the Sandinistas and their mass organizations, including the Sandinista Workers\' Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Nicaraguan Women\'s Association (Asociación de Mujeres Nicaragüenses Luisa Amanda Espinoza), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos).

Sandinistas and the Contras

Main articles: FSLN, Contras, Iran-Contra scandal, and Nicaragua v. United States

Upon assuming office in 1981, U.S. President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. His administration authorized the CIA to begin financing, arming and training rebels, some of whom were the remnants of Somoza\'s National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in Spanish)."Nicaragua: Growth of Opposition, 1981-83", Ciao Atlas. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-Communist forces chose to embrace. Eden Pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces, who were not associated with the "Somozistas," also resisted the Sandinistas. The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua\'s Corinto harbour,Truver, Scott C.. "Mines and Underwater IEDs in U.S. Ports and Waterways...", pp. 4. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  an action condemned by the World Court as illegal.Summary of the Order of the International Court of Justice of 10 May 1984Nicaragua v. United States The U.S. also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo."US Policy: Economic Embargo: The War Goes On", Envío, Central American University - UCA. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. 

U.S. support for this Nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the European Union, religious groups sent to monitor the election and observers from democratic nations such as Canada and the Republic of Ireland concluded that the Nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. The Reagan administration disputed these results however, despite the fact that the government of the United States never had any observers in Nicaragua at the time.Election archiveThe library of Congress Country Studies

After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (The Iran-Contra Affair).Baker, Dean. The United States since 1980 (The World Since 1980). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 101. ISBN 0-521-86017-2.  When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about the Iranian "arms for hostages" dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras; for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame. Senator John Kerry\'s 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra-drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras\' funding problems.""The Oliver North File", National Security Archive. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.  According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, a Panamanian general and the de facto military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was overthrown and captured by a U.S. invading force.Panama Noriega\'s Money Machine MICHAEL S. SERRILL, Reported by Jonathan Beaty and Ricardo Chavira/Washington, \'50th birthday last week\' written February 1989 He was taken to the United States, tried for drug trafficking, and imprisoned in 1992.Noriega suffers mild stroke, hospitalized in Miami CNN December 2004

The Reagan administration\'s support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, linking the origins of crack cocaine in California to the contras.Restored version of the original "Dark Alliance" web page, San Jose Mercury News, now hosted by narconews.com Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the contras. Sen. John Kerry\'s report in 1988 led to the same conclusions, however, major media outlets, the Justice Department, and Reagan denied the allegations.Crockett, Stephen. "Bush and Republicans vs. rule of law", The Free Press. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. 

Politics

Main article: Politics of Nicaragua

Politics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

1990s and the post-Sandinista era

Multi-party democratic elections were held in 1990, which saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of anti-Sandinista (from the left and right of the political spectrum) parties led by Violeta Chamorro, the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people.O\'GRADY, MARY. "Ortega\'s Comeback Schemes Roil Nicaragua". Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  The unexpected result was subject to a great deal of analysis and comment, and was attributed by commentators such as Noam Chomsky and S. Brian Willson to the US/Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power, the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and the abysmal Nicaraguan economic situation.

Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in 1990 became the first female president democratically elected in the Americas.

On the other hand, P. J. O\'Rourke wrote in "Return of the Death of Communism", "the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel Ortega spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury . . .""The Return of the Death of Communism: Nicaragua, February 1990," a chapter in Give War a Chance... by P. J. O\'Rourke. Grove Press; reprint edition (November 2003, ISBN 0-8021-4031-9).

Exit polls of Nicaraguans reported Chamorro\'s victory over Ortega was achieved with only 55%."Was February 25 a \'triumph\'? National Review v. 42", Tulane University. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  Violeta Chamorro was the first woman to be popularly elected as President of a Latin American nation and first woman president of Nicaragua. Exit polling convinced Daniel Ortega that the election results were legitimate, and were instrumental in his decision to accept the vote of the people and step down rather than void the election. Nonetheless Ortega vowed that he would govern "desde abajo" (from below),"El Sandinista Daniel Ortega se convierte de nuevo en presidente de Nicaragua", El Mundo, 2006-11-08. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. (Spanish)  in other words due to his widespread control of institutions and Sandinista individuals in all government agencies, he would still be able to maintain control and govern even without being president.

Chamorro received an economy entirely in ruins. The per capita income of Nicaragua had been reduced by over 80% during the 1980s, and a huge government debt which ascended to US$12 billion primarily due to financial and social costs of the Contra war with the Sandinista-led government.Dennis, Gilbert. "Social conditions of Nicaragua", The Library of Congress, December 1993. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  Much to the surprise of the US and the contra forces, Chamorro did not dismantle the Sandinista People\'s Army, though the name was changed to the Nicaraguan Army. Chamorro\'s main contribution to Nicaragua was the disarmament of groups in the northern and central areas of the country. This provided stability that the country had lacked for over ten years.

In subsequent elections in 1996 Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas of the FSLN were again defeated, this time by Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC).

In the 2001 elections the PLC again defeated the FSLN, with Enrique Bolaños winning the Presidency. However, President Bolaños subsequently charged and brought forward allegations of money laundering, theft and corruption against former President Alemán. The ex-president was sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and corruption."Nicaragua: Political profile". Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  The Liberal members who were loyal to Alemán and also members of congress reacted angrily, and along with Sandinista parliament members stripped the presidential powers of President Bolaños and his ministers, calling for his resignation and threatening impeachment.

President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, Celebrating May 1, 2005, in the Plaza of the Revolution in Havana, Cuba. President Ortega is currently serving his second term.

The Sandinistas alleged that their support for Bolaños was lost when US Secretary of State Colin Powell told Bolaños to keep his distance from the FSLN.Thompson, Ginger. "U.S. fears comeback of an old foe in Nicaragua", International Herald Tribune, 2005-04-06, pp. 3. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  This "slow motion coup" was averted partially due to pressure from the Central American presidents who would fail to recognize any movement that removed Bolaños; The U.S, the OAS, and the European Union also opposed the "slow motion coup"."Nicaragua \'creeping coup\' warning", BBC News, 2005-09-30. Retrieved on 2007-05-09.  The proposed constitutional changes that were going to be introduced in 2005 against the Bolaños administration were delayed until January 2007 after the entrance of the new government. Though 1 day before they were enforced the National Assembly postponed their enforcement until January 2008.

Before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion in Nicaragua 52-0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent). President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, but signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006,B. Frazier, Joseph. "Nicaraguan President Signs Abortion Ban", Washington Post, 2006-11-18. Retrieved on 2007-05-25.  as a result Nicaragua is one of three countries in the world where abortion is illegal with no exceptions, along with El Salvador and Chile.

Legislative and presidential elections took place on November 5, 2006. Daniel Ortega returned to the presidency with 37.99% of the vote. This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage requiring a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory)."Bolaños Will Move To The National Assembly After All", Envío Magazine, November 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. 

Departments and municipalities

Main articles: Departments of Nicaragua and Municipalities of Nicaragua

Departments of Nicaragua

Nicaragua is a unitary republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos) and two self-governing regions (autonomous communities) based on the Spanish model. The departments are then subdivided into 153 municipios (municipalities). The two autonomous regions are Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte and Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur, often referred to as RAAN and RAAS, respectively. Until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya."Background and socio-economic context", pp. 9. Retrieved on 2007-05-09. 

Boaco (Boaco) Carazo (Jinotepe) Chinandega (Chinandega) Chontales (Juigalpa) Estelí (Estelí) Granada (Granada) Jinotega (Jinotega) León (León) Madriz (Somoto)

Managua (Managua) Masaya (Masaya) Matagalpa (Matagalpa) Nueva Segovia (Ocotal) Rivas (Rivas) Río San Juan (San Carlos) RAAN (Bilwi) RAAS (Bluefields)

Geography

Main article: Geography of Nicaragua

See also: Volcanoes of Nicaragua and Wildlife of Nicaragua

Nicaragua occupies a landmass of 129,494 km² - roughly the size of Greece or the state of New York and 1.5 times larger than Portugal. Close to 20% of the country\'s territory is designated as protected areas such as national parks, nature reserves and biological reserves. The country is bordered by Costa Rica on the south and Honduras on the north, with the Caribbean Sea to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific Lowlands, the North-Central Mountains or highlands and the Atlantic Lowlands.

Pacific lowlands

Turtles are common in many beaches of Nicaragua when on a yearly basis they collectively arrive at the same time on the same beach to lay their eggs. They are protected by the Nicaraguan government in National Parks

Located in the west of the country, these lowlands consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes of the Marrabios mountain range, including Mombacho just outside Granada, and Momotombo near León.